Highlights
- Men with a baseline PSA level below 1.0 ng/mL have a remarkably low 20-year cumulative incidence of prostate cancer (3.3%), suggesting that frequent screening may be unnecessary for this cohort.
- Baseline PSA levels above 3.0 ng/mL are associated with a 34.8% risk of prostate cancer over 20 years, necessitating intensive surveillance.
- Multivariable analysis identifies age, baseline PSA, and PSA density as the most robust predictors of long-term risk, while metabolic markers like BMI and HbA1c showed no consistent association.
- The findings provide strong evidence for the implementation of risk-adapted screening programs to reduce over-diagnosis and optimize resource allocation.
Introduction: The Challenge of Over-Diagnosis vs. Late Detection
Prostate cancer remains one of the most significant health burdens for men globally, with incidence rates projected to double by 2040. For decades, the medical community has grappled with the ‘double-edged sword’ of Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) screening. While early detection can be life-saving, unselective mass screening has historically led to significant over-diagnosis and over-treatment of indolent tumors, carrying substantial morbidity and psychological burden.
Recent international guidelines have shifted toward ‘risk-adapted’ strategies. These programs aim to tailor the frequency and intensity of screening based on an individual’s baseline risk profile. However, the long-term predictive value of baseline biomarkers—extending over two decades—has remained insufficiently characterized. The recently published Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP) provides critical longitudinal data to fill this gap, offering a 20-year perspective on how baseline clinical and liquid biomarkers can guide clinical decision-making.
The SHIP Study: A Longitudinal Look at 20-Year Outcomes
Study Design and Methodology
The Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP) is a prospective, population-based research initiative in Germany. This specific cohort study analyzed 2651 men aged 45 to 70 years who were free of prostate cancer at baseline. The participants underwent comprehensive examinations starting in October 1997, with structured follow-up continuing through September 2021.
The researchers evaluated a variety of exposures, including:
Liquid Biomarkers
Serum PSA levels and metabolic markers such as glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c).
Clinical Metrics
Body Mass Index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio.
Imaging-Derived Metrics
Prostate volume and PSA density, derived from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
The primary outcome was the long-term incidence of prostate cancer. To ensure statistical rigor, the study employed cumulative incidence functions that treated death as a competing risk—a crucial methodology when studying aging populations over 20 years. Cause-specific Cox models were used to estimate the association between baseline markers and future cancer risk.
Results: Quantifying the 20-Year Risk Spectrum
The study’s findings delineate a clear and significant risk stratification based on baseline PSA levels.
The Protective Nature of PSA < 1.0 ng/mL
Of the 2651 men, 55.9% (n = 1482) had a baseline PSA level below 1.00 ng/mL. For these men, the risk of developing prostate cancer was exceptionally low across all time points:
- 5-year incidence: 0.1%
- 10-year incidence: 0.6%
- 20-year incidence: 3.3%
This data suggests that a single low PSA reading in middle age confers a high degree of ‘safety’ for the subsequent two decades.
Intermediate and High-Risk Cohorts
For men with intermediate PSA levels (1.00–3.00 ng/mL), comprising 36.1% of the cohort, the 20-year incidence rose to 11.8%. In contrast, the high-risk group (PSA > 3.00 ng/mL), representing only 8.0% of the population, faced a 34.8% risk of prostate cancer over 20 years. The difference in cumulative incidence between these groups was statistically significant (P < .001), reinforcing PSA's role as a cornerstone of risk assessment.
Predictive Power of PSA Density and Age
Beyond absolute PSA levels, the multivariable Cox regression identified other critical predictors. Age (Hazard Ratio [HR], 1.04) and PSA density (HR, 1.41) remained consistently associated with prostate cancer risk. Notably, PSA density—calculated as the PSA level divided by the MRI-measured prostate volume—showed the strongest relative hazard, suggesting that the volume-adjusted PSA is a superior marker for detecting clinically significant risk compared to PSA alone.
Interestingly, metabolic factors such as BMI, waist-to-hip ratio, and HbA1c showed either no association or inconsistent results across different models. This suggests that while metabolic health is vital for overall longevity, it may not be a primary driver of prostate cancer risk in the same way that prostate-specific markers are.
Clinical Implications: Moving Toward Risk-Adapted Intervals
The SHIP study provides empirical support for a paradigm shift in urological practice. The current ‘one size fits all’ annual or biennial screening approach is likely excessive for the majority of men.
Extended Intervals for Low-Risk Men
For clinicians, the most actionable takeaway is the safety of extending screening intervals for men with a baseline PSA < 1.0 ng/mL. If the 10-year risk is less than 1%, frequent testing in this group provides little benefit while increasing the risk of false positives. Many experts now suggest that for these men, screening intervals could be extended to 5 or even 10 years without compromising safety.
Intensified Monitoring for High PSA Density
Conversely, the high hazard ratio for PSA density emphasizes the importance of prostate volume. In men with borderline PSA levels, obtaining an MRI to calculate PSA density can provide a more accurate risk profile. A high PSA density should trigger a more aggressive diagnostic pathway, potentially including earlier biopsy or more frequent imaging.
Expert Commentary: Balancing Evidence and Practice
While the SHIP study is robust, several factors must be considered in its clinical application. The study was conducted in a specific German population, and while the biological markers are universally relevant, the exact incidence rates may vary across different ethnic groups. Furthermore, the study focused on total prostate cancer incidence. Future analyses should continue to differentiate between low-grade (Gleason 6) and high-grade (Gleason 7+) disease to further refine screening protocols toward the detection of ‘lethal’ rather than ‘indolent’ cancers.
Guideline bodies, such as the European Association of Urology (EAU) and the American Urological Association (AUA), have already begun incorporating baseline PSA at age 45-50 as a predictor of lifetime risk. The SHIP data reinforces these guidelines, providing the 20-year evidence base needed to reassure both physicians and patients that ‘less is more’ in low-risk scenarios.
Conclusion: A Foundation for Personalized Screening
The 20-year results from the SHIP cohort confirm that baseline PSA and PSA density are powerful tools for long-term risk stratification. By identifying the 55% of men who are at extremely low risk, healthcare systems can focus resources on the high-risk minority who are most likely to benefit from early intervention. This risk-adapted approach represents the future of precision medicine in urology—maximizing the life-saving potential of screening while minimizing the harms of over-diagnosis.
Funding and References
This research was supported by the Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP), which is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, the Ministry of Cultural Affairs, and the Social Ministry of the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania, Germany.
References:
1. Lindholz M, Bülow R, Schoots IG, et al. Clinical and Liquid Biomarkers of 20-Year Prostate Cancer Risk in Men Aged 45 to 70 Years. JAMA Netw Open. 2026;9(2):e2556732. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.56732.
2. Vickers AJ, Ulmert D, Sjoberg DD, et al. Strategy for detection of prostate cancer based on relation between prostate specific antigen at age 40-55 and risk of death: case-control study. BMJ. 2013;346:f2023.
3. Hugosson J, Roobol MJ, Månsson M, et al. A 16-yr Follow-up of the European Randomized study of Screening for Prostate Cancer. Eur Urol. 2019;76(1):43-51.
